Stress and the immune system have an intricate relationship, with several decades of research demonstrating that stressors can significantly influence immune system activities. Both acute (short-lived) and chronic (long-term) stress can modulate the immune response in various ways.
The body’s response to stress is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The HPA axis releases glucocorticoids such as cortisol, while the SNS controls the release of catecholamines, including adrenaline and noradrenaline.

When confronted with a stressor, the body initiates a fight-or-flight response, causing cortisol and catecholamines to flood the system. These hormones prepare the body for immediate action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose levels. Simultaneously, they also suppress non-emergency bodily functions such as digestion, growth, reproduction, and parts of the immune system (Sapolsky, 2004).

In acute stress situations, this immune system suppression can actually be beneficial. Short-term stress can enhance the immune response by mobilizing immune cells, such as natural killer cells, neutrophils, and monocytes, into the bloodstream, improving the body’s ability to fight off foreign invaders (Dhabhar, 2014). This is likely an evolutionary adaptation to prepare for potential injury or infection during a life-threatening situation (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004).
However, chronic stress can have detrimental effects on the immune system. Over time, the body may become resistant to the regulatory effects of cortisol due to the constant activation of the HPA axis, a phenomenon known as glucocorticoid resistance. This could potentially lead to a state of chronic inflammation due to an overactive immune response (Miller, Cohen & Ritchey, 2002).

Furthermore, chronic stress can also negatively affect the distribution and function of immune cells. Long-term stress can reduce the number of lymphocytes, including T-cells and B-cells, impairing the body’s adaptive immune response. It can also affect cytokine balance, leading to a shift towards a Th2-dominated immune response, which may contribute to increased susceptibility to viral infections and the development of atopic diseases (Marshall, 2011).
It is also important to note that the impact of stress on the immune system can vary depending on factors such as the type, intensity, and duration of stress, as well as individual characteristics like age, sex, and genetic predisposition.

Indeed, several studies have shown the detrimental effects of stress on immune function. For instance, research conducted during exam periods found that medical students had a weaker immune response to vaccines and a slower wound healing process compared to their non-exam period (Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005). This provides evidence that stress can significantly affect the immune system’s efficiency.

All in all, stress can have a significant impact on the immune system. While acute stress can enhance immune responses, chronic stress can lead to immune dysregulation, potentially contributing to various health problems. Therefore, managing stress is an essential part of maintaining overall health and well-being.

References:

Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers. New York: Henry Holt.
Dhabhar, F. S. (2014). Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful. Immunologic Research, 58(2-3), 193-210.
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological bulletin, 130(4), 601.
Miller, G. E., Cohen, S., & Ritchey, A. K. (2002). Chronic psychological stress and the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: a glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychology, 21(6), 531.
Marshall, G. D. (2011). The adverse effects of psychological stress on immunoregulatory balance: applications to human inflammatory diseases. Immunology and Allergy Clinics, 31(1), 133-140.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Marucha, P. T., Malarkey, W. B., Mercado, A. M., & Glaser, R. (1995). Slowing of wound healing by psychological stress. The Lancet, 346(8984), 1194-1196.

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